*Montserrat, Caribbean Island and UK Independent Territory. Lies on boundary of 3 tectonic plates.

Chances Peak volcano in Soufriere Hills erupted 18 July 1995 after 400 yrs of lying dormant-continuous eruptions over next 3 yrs destroyed much of Montserrat's farmland. capital, Plymouth, evacuated along with most of the islands 11,000 inhabitants. Caused range of social, cultural, political and scientific problems for UK Govt.

1995 - steam explosions, ashfalls, earthquakes. Plymouth evacuated but people later returned after volcano settled.

1996 - Volcano active again, ash cloud developed and more ashfalls followed, earthquakes. South part of island evacuated, Plymouth becomes ghost town, 5,000 people moved to north of island,6,000 left for Antigua or Guadeloupe or Britain.

1997 - Pyroclastic flows, fires destroyed woodland, floods destroyed houses. June = 7 villages destroyed and covered by 3m of ash, airport abandoned, 23 people killed, volcano settles once more

Lasting Effects - South of island destroyed = most developed area with Plymouth (capital) + industry + port + services etc. Evacuees forced to live in makeshift shelters in north, few roads, settlements, inadequate sanitation and hospitals. Tourist industry collapsed, most of good farmland in south now buried under thick layers of ash, destroying crops.

Problems for the British Govt:

Offered 2,400 compensation per person (over 18) wanting to leave the island

41million offered in aid to develop the north

But islanders wanted 20,000 per person, rioting followed. Islanders wanted British citizenship, unemployment compensation + property protection

Earthquakes

How & why they happen, world distribution of activity – long narrow belts, plate boundaries e.g. encircle Pacific Ocean, extend down length of Mid-Atlantic Ocean. Measurement -  seismograph, Richter Scale, Mercalli Scale, focus, epicentre. 
Types of fault - normal, reverse, rift, tear, transverse.
Prediction - animals, rise in water levels, cracks, foreshocks, lights in sky, gas released

Prevention – reinforced buildings, birdcage structures, suspension, earthquake drills, survival kits

Primary & secondary effects – incl. mudflows (lahars), tsunamis

Variations in effects and responses to tectonic activity between MEDC’s and LEDC’s. Also differences between urban and rural areas

*The Kobe earthquake  - location, labelled sketch map, what happened, why, what people did.
· Japan is one of world's most technologically advanced & richest nations
· Japan - population of 124 million, density = 310/sq.km.
· Occurred; 17th January 1995 5.40am
· Location ; epicentre - Awaji Island off the coast.
Cities of Kobe, Kyoto and Osaka affected.
· Strength (magnitude) - 7.2 on Richter scale
· Over 600 aftershocks
· Over 5 000 people killed, 30 000 injured
· 750 000 homeless
· 20 000 houses destroyed, 1% all buildings badly damaged
· Many buildings built on alluvial soil & landfill -" pancaked"
· Several hospitals in old Kobe - destroyed
· Area of over 100 hectares destroyed by fire, gas pipes exploded. Strong winds made it difficult to control fire
· Large areas blacked out, water ran out. Smoke made it difficult to search for survivors
· Roads blocked by fallen buildings - emergency services couldn't get through
· Expansion joints on bridges - some failed, some not big enough
· World's largest container port - destroyed
· Cost of damage - over $50 billion
· Many people did not have insurance & lost their livelihood
· Last earthquake in southern Japan - 1596
· Worst earthquake in Japan in 50 years
· Rain & strong wind increased landslide risk
· No running water - sanitation problems - disease
Why did it happen?
· Philippine plate moving beneath Eurasian plate locked, pressure built up Response / Ways to minimise damage
· Survivors taken to central buildings with stockpiles of food, water & blankets
· Since 1981 new houses have to be earthquake proof.
· Some buildings in central Kobe have structures which are computer controlled & adjust to earth movements
· Earthquake drills in schools, offices, hospitals etc.
· Leaflets, evacuation plans, disaster plans, civil defence
· Survival kits, stockpiles - especially water & medicine
· New designs & materials to withstand tremors for buildings, bridges etc.

Coasts

How are waves formed? Fetch, swash, backwash, constructive waves, destructive waves

PROCESSES:

EROSION - hydraulic action ( pressure or power), corrasion (abrasion), attrition, corrosion (solution)
TRANSPORT - boulders rolling (traction), saltation, suspension, solution
DEPOSITION and LONGSHORE DRIFT
LANDFORMS - wave-cut platforms, cliffs, caves, arches, stacks, stumps, beaches, headlands, bays, spits, bars, tombolos

Coastal management issues - why are cliffs eroded, how can they be protected - groynes, sea walls etc. Tourism.
 

*THE YORKSHIRE & HOLDERNESS COAST - EROSION, DEPOSITION & DEFENCES

Retreating ice sheets at end of last Ice Age left large deposits of boulder clay 50 m high in places . Holderness. 
Sea and weather have eroded the new coast at a rapid rate - 5.6 km lost since Roman times, towards the harder rock of the Yorkshire Wolds, farmland and over 30 villages. Rate of recession = 2m/yr. Accelerated by human activity. 
Hard rock - headlands. Scarborough & Flamborough Head - headland attacked - caves, arches, stacks, stumps, cliff recession, wave-cut platform. 
Soft rock - bays. Undercutting. Landslides. Holbeck Hall hotel June 1993. 
Hornsea & Withernsea - concrete sea walls. Here & elsewhere along coast - wooden groynes to reduce effect of waves & trap material moving along the beach as a result of longshore drift to help widen beaches & protect cliffs. 
1991 - the local council at Mappleton built a sea wall at right angles to the coastline, to trap beach material & provide a sea defence so that waves don't reach the cliffs below Mappleton village. It cost £2m. 1994 the project considered a success - material is trapped. But 2km south, the cliffs no longer receive beach material by longshore drift, leading to more erosion at Cliff Top Farm - several metres/yr., 6-7 times faster than before. 1996 farmer Sue Earle has to leave her house, now only 4m from the cliff edge & she plans to sue the council for loss of livelihood. 
Longshore drift. 
Spurn Head - a spit. Formed from eroded material from cliffs of Holderness being carried southwards by longshore drift and deposited in gentler waters. Spurn has been breached by waves several times - now defended by groynes & sea walls - arguably not a natural feature as it depends on these defences. Debate as to whether it should be protected in future.

ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST SEA DEFENCES

· People have lived in these areas for generations. The problem has got much worse in recent years.
· Houses, schools, roads, hotels, agricultural land will be lost -livelihoods & the whole economy of the area will be damaged. Insurance is difficult & expensive to obtain.
· Cost - local authorities cannot afford it, takes money from other areas.
· Revetments & groynes get damaged & need replacing. Wooden groynes rot. They do not protect the cliff from water which comes from the land, particularly after heavy storms, this makes the cliff wet & unstable and prone to collapse.
· Revetments & walls look ugly & out of place, puts tourists off.
· The land is not that valuable - defences should only protect important cities & installations.
· If cliffs are allowed to erode, they will feed sand to beaches - the only real protection.
· Sea defences simply make the problem worse further down the coast, now more likely to work with nature.

Groynes reduce the amount of longshore drift and help sand to build up in front of the cliff, helping to protect the base of the cliff from corrasion (abrasion). A beach forces waves to break before hitting the land. Built near to sea walls and wherever their cost can be justified.
Cost; £6,000 each - 200 m apart.

Revetments are used where the expense of a sea wall cannot be justified. They break the force of the waves and trap beach material behind them to protect the base of the cliffs. But they do not give total protection to the cliff foot as a sea wall does. Groynes can be used to stop waves undermining the revetment. Cost £1,000/m.

Gabions are cages of boulders built onto the face of the cliff above a sea wall. They are only used where a settlement faces severe problems of erosion. Cost £350/m.

Sea walls are the most effective means of preventing erosion, but are most expensive. They deflect the power of the waves, but this usually means that the waves wash away the beach material, then the waves undermine the sea wall. Groynes are needed to hold the beach in place. Cost £2,000/m.

Beach feeding involves bringing in sand to raise the beach level and increase its gradient, helps to protect the cliffs. Colliery waste could be dumped 50km off the coast to focus the waves onto the shore to form small bays & the accumulation of sand.

Drainage pipes help drain water out of the cliff face, reducing risk of cliff collapsing when it is too wet & saturated.

Coastal management issues - Tourism * Kenya

• coral reef is damaged/destroyed – glass bottom boats at low tide hit reef

• coral reefs = natural barrier, protecting coast from waves and erosion

• Young fish hide in nooks and crannies of reef. Also reefs provide nursery for young fish which are later caught and eaten by locals

• tourists take shells/coral away as souvenirs

• mangrove trees grow in shallow tropical waters – prevent mud/silt from being washed out to sea (this settles on reef which dies when covered with sediment). Also home for birds and marine animals. Trees felled to make room for hotels and roads

• Untreated sewage flows onto reef from resorts causing pollution

Attempts at management

• Large areas roped off to prevent further damage from tourists

• Visitors confined to exploring areas where coral already damaged in an attempt to save the rest

• Resorts built further back from coastline

Glaciation

Ice sheet, ice cap, glacier, nevee, crevasse, accumulation, ablation, (advance/retreat of a glacier) -  glacial period, interglacial period, land bridge

At present 2 ice sheets: i) Antartica (90% earth’s surface), ii) Greenland (8%)

Last ice age began 2.5 – 3 million years ago (covered third of earth’s land). 20 advances/retreats since. Last glaciers melted in Britain 10,000 years ago.

PROCESSES:

EROSION - plucking, abrasion, bulldozing

WEATHERING - freeze-thaw action

DEPOSITION - moraine - lateral, medial, terminal, ground, recessional, boulder clay (till), outwash deposits

LANDFORMS:

corries, aretes, pyramidal peaks, ribbon lakes, glacial troughs ( U-shaped valleys), hanging valleys, truncated spurs, roche moutonne, striations, erratics, drumlins, kames, eskers

e.g.  *SNOWDONIA - CWM IDWAL & the NANT FFRANCON VALLEY
 

Human activity in a glaciated area

Hill sheep farming in the Lake District 
Tourism and conflict in the Cairngorms 
Dinorwic pumped storage HEP station, Snowdonia
 

*FARMING - Lake District, Snowdonia 

Fell - common land high, steep area, rainfall 3000 mm, low sunshine/ temperature, thin, poor, rocky soils - rough grazing. Enclosed land on slopes above valley floor - rough grazing, maybe some improved soils. Valley floor - improved pasture, lower, 5° C warmer, drier (1000 mm), sheltered. Soils deeper but may be waterlogged -need lime. Used for hay, silage, grazing, lambing, shearing, dipping. 
Improvements - flood prevention, drainage, lime/fertilser, reseed grass, clear bracken, mend walls/fences, improved buildings. 
Changes - smaller farms amalgamated, fewer workers - cottages= holiday accommodation, help from Government & EU for farming, farmers involved in tourism - tea room, ice cream, pony trekking, camping/caravan, farmhouse holidays.
 

*TOURISM - Cairngorms 

Increased leisure time - demand for skiing, climbing, fell walking ,fishing, hunting, bird-watching. 
Aviemore, purpose built, (1966) all year round centre- theatre, cinema, shops, swimming pool, sauna, ice rink, artificial ski-slope. 
Major source of income for 40% of 2000 inhabitants of area. 
Last wilderness in Europe, remote, wild 4000' plateau. Pine forest, deer, grouse, birds of prey. World Heritage Site.500 sq. km.
FOR the funicular railway - LOCALS & TOURISTS
AGAINST the funicular railway - CONSERVATION GROUPS
· Get tourists & skiers to summit in 3 minutes, even in 120 km/hr winds.
· Chairlift cannot be used on many days each winter.
· Carry twice as many people/hour
· Extra tourists=more jobs & income.
· Replaces ageing chairlift.
· New cafe with centre to explain climate & wilderness features of mountains.
· Highest 250m of track in a tunnel to minimise visual intrusion.
· Visitors will not be allowed to set foot on the mountain from the centre.
· More people= more trampling of fragile arctic ecosystem.
· RSPB concerned rare birds will be disturbed ptarmigan, golden eagles, ospreys.
· Ramblers Assoc. - walks& climbs threatened by extra skiers & visitors.
· National Trust for Scotland & Scottish Natural Heritage -visually intrusive.

Avalanches

Tumblings of snow & ice moving rapidly down a steep slope. Caused by vibrations, loud noises, passing vehicles, rapid thawing ( warm winds). Destroy villages & bury people alive. Prevention; 
snow fences, bridges, snow nets 
planting shelter belts of conifers above villages 
strengthened, wedge-shaped buildings 
deliberate triggering of small avalanches 
use of sniffer dogs & heat-seeking detectors to find people 
monitoring avalanche conditions

*HEP - e.g. Dinorwic. 

U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys - huge "head of water" 
Corries can be dammed, natural ribbon lakes that can be enlarged -storage for pumped schemes. 
High, reliable rainfall, large catchment. 
Low population density - cheap land, little opposition.

Rivers

Hydrological cycle – condensation, precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, surface run-off

The drainage basin system – inputs, flows, stores, outputs

Drainage basin processes - Precipitation, interception, surface storage, infiltration, percolation, groundwater, transpiration, throughflow, overland flow, groundwater flow, evaporation, saturation,

Drainage basin features – watershed, confluence, tributary, water table

Drainage basin Patterns – parallel, dendritic, trellised, radial

Courses of a river – upper (youth), middle (maturity), lower (old age)

Erosion processes – hydraulic action, corrosion, abrasion (corrasion), attrition

Transport processes – solution, floatation, suspension, saltation, traction

River features:

upper

waterfalls, rapids, vertical (downwards) and headward (backwards) erosion, turbulent, narrow V-shaped valley, interlocking spurs, little deposition. (EROSION = main process)

middle

mostly lateral erosion (sideways) on outside of meander bends with deposition on inside, flow less turbulent, gentler gradient with flat floor to valley. (TRANSPORTATION= main process)

lower

wide floodplain, alluvium, laminar (smooth) flow, very gentle gradient, raised beds, levees, river terraces, meander cut-offs, ox-bow lakes, possibly delta at mouth, estuaries. (DEPOSITION= main process)

*River Tees

must know land uses e.g uplands for forestry, dams, sheep farming and urban uses in estuaries. Main features and processes of each stage in river (see above)

Explain shape of a river bend cross-section – fastest flow, deposition = beach (slip-off slope), erosion = river cliff (bluff)

River Flood Hydrographs – shape affected by:

a)      weather – e.g. heavy rainfall, frozen ground in winter

b)      nature of the basin – e.g. geology - permeable, impermeable. Also slopes

c)      land use – e.g. vegetation - tree cover, also rural and urban areas

d)      river management – e.g. dam

Discharge (cumecs), lag time, peak

Flooding – explain how occurs, how affects people and the environment, flood prevention/control measures taken to reduce future risk/minimise impact.

Why might flooding be more harmful in LEDC’s than MEDC’s?

*Bangladesh (LEDC)

*Lynmouth, Devon (MEDC)

Rivers as a valuable resource:

- supply water for domestic use, industry, commerce. Provide leisure and       recreation opportunities.

- support rich and varied wildlife.

-         important means of disposing of sewage and industrial effluent.

-         used for transport.

Conflicts arise through use of rivers in such ways e.g. flooding valleys to create reservoirs.

River Management Schemes - *Kielder Water

Rocks and Landscapes

Types:

Igneous – molten magma injected into earth’s crust

i)                    intrusive - deep underground = plutonic – large crystals e.g. granite

ii)                   extrusive - rises to surface – cools quickly – small crystals e.g. basalt

Sedimentary – material deposited on sea-bed, river-bed, land (more rarely). Pressure and chemical action compact and cement together. Bedding planes, strata, joints e.g. sandstone, limestone (formed from tiny sea creatures), coal (decaying vegetation)

Metamorphic – existing rocks changed by heat and/or pressure e.g. limestone ® marble, clay ® slate

Weathering:

i) Physical (mechanical)            a) frost shattering (freeze-thaw)

                                                b) exfoliation (onion-skin)

ii) biological

iii) chemical:-solution, oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation

Rock Structure:

i) Resistance e.g. hard rock = hills/mountains (soft rock = valleys), cliffs/headlands (    bays)

ii) Permeability:

a) permeable = water pass through either:

porous (contain tiny pores through which water can pass)

pervious (water flows along areas of weakness such as bedding planes)

b) impermeable = water not pass through

Rock Landscapes:

1. Granite

Upland areas e.g. moorland plateaus of SW England (tors) and Grampians (Cairngorms) in Scotland. Intrusive batholiths, sills and dykes . Impermeable so much surface drainage. Soils acidic and infertile. Sheep grazing and on fringes dairy cattle. Fine building stone/ornamental stone. Breakdown of granite produces kaolin (china clay) used in pottery industry. Also in manufacture of paper, toothpaste, paint.

2. Limestone

Spring, limestone pavement, swallow hole, gorge, cave, joint, stalactite, stalagmite, pillar, scar, dry valley

Found in areas of Peak District, Lake District, Yorkshire Dales. Solution weathering forms distinctive upland Karst scenery. Thin soils support only rough grazing of sheep/cattle. Little surface drainage. Recreation important – caving, potholing. Quarried for roadstone, lime for cement, steel making.

3. Chalk

Escarpment (cuesta) = scarp (steep), dip slope (more gentle). Often where chalk (hard) and clay (soft) form in alternate outcrops. Porous so little surface drainage and few rivers, but maybe dry valleys on dip slope (temporary rivers after wet weather = bournes). Coastal outcrops give high cliffs e.g. Dover, Flamborough Head. Thin soil = rough grazing and permanent pasture. Little settlement, although some early spring line settlements where chalk meets clay e.g. Fulking. Quarried for lime and cement

4. Clay

Wide and flat vales. Impermeable so abundant surface drainage. Forms weak cliffs at the coast which slide and collapse (ref: COASTS - Holbeck Hall Hotel, Scarborough). Heavy soils suitable for livestock farming, especially dairying and beef. Quarried to make bricks.

Managing Resources and Tourism

Key Ideas

· Non renewable resources such as fossil fuels are finite and being used rapidly
· As populations grow and countries develop - resource use increases.
· Fuels - coal, oil gas and Energy - electricity. Advantages & disadvantages of the different ways of producing electricity.
· Renewable energy sources - advantages & disadvantages.
· Conservation / resource substitution
The present energy situation and the future - MEDC's and LEDC's.
· *MILFORD HAVEN OIL SPILL - case study of environmental impact of energy resource exploitation & effects on a coastline and National Park.
. *EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL - Alaska oil - problems of exploitation and how overcome. Large-scale and long lasting environmental impact of spill.

Managing resources - further ideas and examples

Distinction between fuel and energy

Thermal power stations and the National Grid

Adv/Disadv of using coal, oil, gas, nuclear, fuel wood = non renewable resources

Fossil Fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and their formation.

Relationship between energy consumption and development and population growth

Adv /Disadv of alternative sources – solar, tidal, wave, biogas, biomass, geothermal, wind, HEP (hydro-electric power) =Renewable

Solar e.g. Africa, India

Tidal e.g. Severn estuary

Waves e.g. Norway

Biogas/biomass e.g. Brazil

Geothermal e.g. Iceland, New Zealand

Wind e.g. Cornwall

HEP e.g. Dinorwic (North Wales), Itaipu (Brazil)

OPEC (Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries) and its effect on world oil prices

Energy and the environment - Causes and effects of global warming, acid rain, ozone layer damage – measures taken to reduce pollution by governments and individuals

The need for sustainable development - energy conservation – recycling

Tourism - Key Ideas

Reasons for increase in leisure/recreation time:

• aging population

• shorter working week

• greater affluence

• longer holidays with pay.

Trends - ­car ownership, ­ package holidays abroad
· Environments offer possibilities for tourism development-natural, cultural & man-made 
· Tourism brings advantages and disadvantages - economic, social, cultural, environmental. This can lead to conflict.
· Conflicts need to be carefully managed to protect people and environments whilst generating income and other benefits e.g. *Cairngorms (Link between glacial scenery and tourism)
MEDC's - The Peak District & National Parks - where are they, what are they. What is a honeypot. The Cairgorms. Costa-del-Sol. 
LEDC's - Kenya - coastal areas & National Parks.
· Where are they, why do they attract tourists
· Advantages and disadvantages of tourism
· Green tourism - the need for stewardship and conservation . Sustainability
 

*Peak District National Park

National Parks were set up to; 
Preserve & protect areas of natural beauty - landscape, wildlife & historic buildings 
Give people from cities access to countryside 
Look after the interests of people who live & work in the countryside to keep the local economy going
Key features of the Peak District; 
First National Park, covers 1404 sq. km 
Land is privately owned 
Run by National Park Authorities 
Most money comes from the Government, some from local authorities 
People attracted by large stately homes, limestone caves, stalactites & stalagmites, hiking, climbing etc.
 

Advantages and disadvantages of tourism

Advantages

Economic -30% jobs linked to tourism -hotels, B&B's, restaurants, cafes etc. Also shops, gifts etc. 1.5 million people stay overnight. 17-20 million visit for the day. 
Can provide farmers with extra income. 
Amenities - locals can use tourist facilities -buses, shops - but see 3 below 
Environmental - the popularity of countryside led to growth of organisations like the National Trust & the Countryside Commission. They help with projects to protect & enhance the environment.

Disadvantages

Erosion - footpaths. Fires, damage to stone walls & fences. 
Pollution - air, boats. 
Commuter villages, second homes - local shops & services decline, -locals cannot afford house process. 
Traffic - narrow roads get congested, difficult for farmers. Parking. See 1 above. Most people arrive by car. Up to 100,000 cars a day on summer Sundays, 22 million cars/year. 
Threatened habitats - vegetation damaged, birds & animals affected.
 

Conflicts

water - reservoirs flood land but are needed
forestry - looks out of place but need the pulp & paper
quarries - limestone needed for road building etc. Dust & noise from blasting, heavy traffic on narrow roads.
 

Sustainable tourism

Tourism which allows today's visitors to enjoy an area without affecting the ability of future visitors to do the same.
· design, sitting & management of new developments to fit in with old & environment, screen unsightly buildings & facilities.
· encourage visitors for more of the year.
· educate the public to respect the countryside & those who live & work there - Country Code.
· road signs to direct traffic to least congested routes, one-way systems, park & ride, encourage use of public transport, mini-buses, limit car parking, cycling, walking. e.g. Goyt Valley scheme.
· admission & parking charges.
· plan new footpaths, signposts, artificial surfaces, fence areas off.
· litter bins, recycling.
 

*KENYA - tourism in a LEDC

Reasons for growth

Improved standards of living, more paid holidays, flexible working, earlier retirement 
Improved transport - quicker, easier, cheaper 
Package holidays - easy, convenient, affordable 
Increased awareness - education, TV, newspapers & magazines, fashion. 
LEDC's develop tourism as a way of economic progress - attract foreign investment & currency

Attractions

Beautiful country, sandy beaches, warm, clear seas, coral reef, Rift Valley 
Wildlife game parks ( rhino, lion, zebra, giraffe, elephant), tribal groups e.g. Masai 
On equator - 30° C, lots of sunshine. 
Mombasa - linear development of expensive hotels & beach complexes-scuba diving, windsurfing, boat trips, fishing trips, at night -local music & entertainment. 
Relatively good roads, good rail links, air transport.

Advantages of tourism

37% total export earnings - hotels, transport, shops, guides, souvenirs. Needed to pay for imports.1991=£400million. 
Just under 1 million tourists - Germany, UK, USA. Average stay = 16 days 
Kenya uses some of income to improve infrastructure , develop facilities, protect wildlife & scenery e.g. Bamburi Nature Trail near Mombasa.

Problems of tourism

Overcrowding of game parks & accommodation. 90% tourists visit south & east. 
Harassment of wildlife - tourist numbers, mini-buses, balloons e.g. Amboseli. Poaching of elephants 
Fragile grassland ecosystem & coral reefs. Coral is damaged by sandy, silty water & pollution. Snorkellers disturb sand.Tourists trample on it or anchor boats.Grassland eroded - traffic creates dust & worn huge tracks in landscape. 
Local people "trade" their culture - souvenirs or performing. Farmers either attracted into tourist industry or pushed inland.Huge gap between locals & tourists.Masai forced off their traditional grazing land when National Parks created. 
Tourists may offend locals e.g. scantily dressed in Muslim areas. 
Beach hotels take up farmland & can spoil natural beauty. 
Pressure on resources like fresh water. 
Seasonal - rainy months April/May. Tourism affected by - Gulf crisis, recession, safety- fewer people come. 
Little of the profit benefits local people.

ECO-TOURISM - sustainable tourism 

Other activities developed to take pressure off above - climbing, white water rafting, more distant safaris, diving off coral coast, hotels built in west, measures to protect coral reef. 
Attempts made to preserve Masai way of life - improved settled housing, controlled flow of visitors to traditional Masai village to watch dancing & selling of crafts.
Bamburi Nature Trail near Mombasa - old cement quarry reclaimed. No soil, plants or wildlife - trees planted, insects introduced - transformed into tropical rainforest, wildlife & tourist facilities added. 100,000 visitors/year.

Industry

· Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, fixed, heavy, footloose, light, hi-tech, formal, informal - define and give an example of each.
· Geographical inertia, break of bulk, agglomeration, Development Area, Enterprise Zone, de-industrialiasation, diversification - explain what each term means and give an example of an industry or location.
· A factory as a system - inputs, processes & outputs. Explain & give an example.
· Factors influencing where factories locate - transport & communications, raw materials, labour, capital, energy, markets, government policy - explain how and why each factor is important & give an example of an industry.

Types of Industry

• Heavy

• Light

• Fixed

• Footloose

• Cottage (pre industrial. Revolution – e.g. Shetland jumpers knitted at home in cottages)

• Factory

• Multinational or Transnational Corporation (many types of business and different countries)

Types of Industrial Location

• Near to raw materials – e.g. steel works (heavy, bulky)

• Nearness to market – e.g. cars (size, bulk), bakery (fresh), furniture (fragile)

• Near to labour supply – e.g. High Tech electronics (skilled workers)

• Government Incentives – NE (high unemployment), provide grants, loans, tax reductions

· Why do modern factories locate on industrial estates /science parks on greenfield sites.
· The role of multinationals in industrial change.
· Industry in LEDCs - advantages & disadvantages of setting up industry in a LEDC, types of industry, government policies - BRAZIL / SOUTH KOREA
 

*IRON & STEEL IN SOUTH WALES - case study of a traditional, fixed industry.
*CHANGING INDUSTRY IN SOUTH WALES - case study of change to Hi-Tech industry

Why Wales?

• Govt incentives – WDA grants etc

• Research – universities at Aberystwyth, Cardiff, Bangor, Swansea

• Transport – Cardiff airport, motorway M4,

• Raw materials – coal/steel + water, electricity

• Rural environment – beaches, golf courses

• Cheap, ready prepared industrial sites

• Markets – Midlands, SE England

• Workforce – plentiful, low wage rates

Growth

Raw materials - coal, iron ore, limestone. Early C19 - 8 tonnes coal + 4 tonnes iron ore=1 tonne iron. inputs, processes, outputs -system. 
World markets. 
Mid C20 as raw materials ran out, near coast so could import - break of bulk, inertia. Inland steelworks e.g. Ebbw Vale, closed. 
Economies of scale - integrated steel works, P. Talbot.
 

Decline

Demand fallen - steel using industries declined, alternatives (aluminum, plastics), foreign competition ( South Korea, Japan). 100,000 jobs lost in coal & steel 1976-96.
 

Regeneration

WDA - 1976, Development Area, Swansea Enterprise Zone, European Coal & Steel Community loans. Multiplier. Diversification. 
Inward investment ( from overseas) attracted by large workforce, transport infrastructure (M4), local market, access to ports, financial incentives, advanced factories, countryside. 
380 overseas firms - cars & high-tech. Multinationals (LG). 
Imperial Park, Newport (extension to M4 corridor) Imperial Science Park was created to encourage high tech industry. Development. Recently Korean companies moved in, created 20,000 jobs - multiplier effect

High Tech Industry in the UK

*M4 Corridor (the ‘silicon valley’)  - modern, light manufacturing involve micro-electronics, computers and telecommunications.

Components – Assembly Plants – Agglomerate – small but highly skilled workforce – factories built on industrial estates/greenfield sites that are well planned, landscaped with good transport links  

Problems

Many multi-nationals – close if cut-backs made

House prices rise

Increased road traffic

*Industry in a developed country - Japan

Electric City – region of Osaka given to high tech electronics

Reasons for growth:

• Natural harbour

• Import raw materials

• Flat land of Osaka Bay

• Population 9 million – highly skilled, dedicated workforce and large, wealthy domestic market

Pyramid organisation – ends with Panasonic (multinational)        

Main problem - Competition from NIC’s (newly industrialised countries), especially SE Asia. Solution – research and development, 11 new science parks

*Industry in a developing country - Brazil      

Industry in LEDCs - advantages & disadvantages of setting up industry in a LEDC, types of industry, government policies

Sao Paulo – 19^th century small town at centre of coffee growing industry. Rapid indⁿ 1960’s and 70’s = economic miracle. New industry. = iron and steel and engineering due to raw materials,  manufacture of machinery, aircraft, cars (Ford, VW, Mercedes, GM)

 Advantages for industry

1.Large country with large population - 1994=159 million, 75% in towns. Industry concentrated in SE. large workforce & growing internal market. Access to growing S.American mkt.
2. Large amounts of raw materials-high grade iron ore, tin, bauxite, uranium.
3. Government encouraged overseas investment.
4. Developed nuclear & alternative energy resources e.g. HEP ( 90% country's electricity) – Itaipu, biomass.
5. Relatively good transport infrastructure in SE.

Further advantages:

• Cheap labour

• Domestic market

• Export to rest of S. America, USA, Middle East

Disadvantages

• Low skills/education levels compared to MEDC's.

• Lack of fossil fuels for energy developments. Badly affected by price rises in 1970s.

• Economic miracle - largely based on loans - debt problem ( $118 million 1991), 30% income from exports goes to pay off debts. High inflation. Destruction of rain forest to generate income from mining, HEP, ranching.

• People attracted to SE from rural areas because of job opportunities – shanty towns.

Also:

• Air pollution

• Traffic congestion

• Sky-scraper jungle

• High land prices and lack of open space

• Favelas growing

• Still >one third Sao Paulo’s working population in informal sector jobs

Solutions

• Creation of New Towns - New employment in formal sector jobs e.g. Pepsi – rising standard of living

• Increasing wealth put back into country to improve run-down areas (NB: need to clear favelas for this)

Alternative/Appropriate Technology

Contributes to sustainable way of life for rich/poor alike

e.g.       rich – appropriate - high tech

            poor – appropriate –    low cost schemes

                                                local raw materials

                                                labour intensive

                                                harmony with environment

Intermediate Technology (IT)

e.g. Kenya

• Massai Housing Project

• Roofing materials

• Energy

    Population

World patterns

Distribution – uneven, changes over time, dot map/topological map. Density – divide total population of a place by its area (sq km), choropleth map, dense, sparse 

Physical and human factors:

i) climate

ii) vegetation and soils

iii) political

iv) social

v) economic ( incl. natural resources and water supply)

*Uneven population distribution at a national level - Britain. compare high densities in connurbations with low in scottish highlands, central wales, pennines

Population Change

Birth rate, death rate, natural increase, demographic transition model, age-sex pyramids

Problems of rapid population growth:

a)      95% taking place in LEDCs

b)      pressure on governments to provide for people

c)      pressure on environment

d)      increased risk of famine and malnutrition

e)      greater differences between richer and poorer countries