Proposed Framework for testing Ochre in all contexts:

A framework to provide testable data is proposed to back assumptions of how ochre may have been used symbolically, non-symbolically or both.  Existing data would need to be re-analysed from the ground up using this framework on a site and regional basis.  Re-analysis cannot be covered in this paper, but it encourages testing of this framework.

1. Does ochre or any other potentially ochreous materials occur naturally in the sediments in cave and open sites?

2. Is there evidence for human modification of the ochre itself (i.e. striations, gouging, drilling)?  Could these marks have been created naturally by surrounding geology or artefacts?

3. The Munsell chart should be used to record the colour of the material presumed ochre.

4. If ochre forms part of the natural sediment, is it the same colour and crystal composition as the striated, gouged, drilled or powdered ochre found at the site?

5. If no other traces of ochre are found naturally, or there appears to be a difference between naturally occurring ochre and the presumed purposely shaped ochre, the nearest naturally occurring ochre source should be found and compared to any ochre found at the site to allow for mapping of the distances travelled to collect this resource.

6. It should be determined whether ochre traces found on artefacts are from the natural surroundings or if it corresponds to any shaped or striated pieces of ochre found in the same context.  Finer sieving techniques are required to achieve this.

7. All staining on natural media should be tested to determine the type of ochre it may be through its mineral content, so that it may be compared to other traces thought to have been created by human action.

8. When ochre is found to be of different colours, one should determine whether there has been any human intervention through applying heat.  Heat application may be a reason for pigment colours not matching in naturally occurring ochre in sediments.  A study of geothite-hematite transformation supports that Palaeolithic people used both natural and ex-geothite hematite (Pommies, Morin, Vignaud 1998).  It suggests that this means that they used an alternative mineral when hematite was not available.  Geothite changes to hematite when heated to a certain temperature.  The evidence for intentional use of heat treatment to alter ochre has implications for the origins of heat treatment in both lithic and ceramic technologies (Rudgley 1998:180).