Map of  Africa

Chart illustrating the ochre frequency as a percentage of total lithic and pigment assemblages in southern African MSA cave/rock shelter sites. (Knight, Power & Watts 1995)  

Watts (1999a) believes that after 100,000 BP (MSA2b) there is some evidence for activity differences between shelters, seen in the dramatic increase of ochre.  

Blombos, South Africa  

Evidence of Middle Stone Age people is thought to have been found here due to the large amount of ochre excavated at this site, assumed to have been used for body painting during ritual activities (Website:  New Finds at Blombos: http://cogweb.english.ucsb.edu/EP/Blombos.html).  Hunter-gatherers at approximately 80,000 years ago are found to be behaviourally similar to 40,000 to 30,000 years ago (ibid).  Hundreds of lumps of ochre have been found at Blombos together with powder traces on stone and bone tools (ibid). 

Bone point, broken at distal end.  Length 55mm.

Ground to a point and highly polished.

Patches of what appear to be ochre are visible in the polish.

(Henshilwood & Sealy 1997:893)

Many of the pieces of ochre seem to have been ground and worked (New Finds at Blombos: Website).  Ian Watts states that “the most intensively ground pieces take the form of crayons … some are beautiful and the implication of such honed points is that they were used for design” (ibid).   Dr Henshilwood believes the occupants of the Blombos cave used ochre for body paint (ibid).  Although helpful, one should be cautious when drawing an analogy to contemporary hunter-gatherers and prehistoric people, as we do not know whether their ritual activities, affected by their socio-political pressures of the time, are the same. 

  Body art:  Mazai warriors wearing ochre body paint

  which has been in use as far back as the Middle Stone Age

(http://cogweb.english.ucsb.edu/EP/Blombos.html)  

In a recent television series, Ape.man (2000), Henshilwood points out storage pockets carved out of the side of the cave where ochre was found (McBrearty & Brooks 2000:528).  These samples had striations demonstrating use and a patch of red pigment on a nearby rock was tested to be ochre.  Henshilwood believes that the ochre must have been used to decorate bone tools or stone artefacts and decorate bodies.  An ochre stained gouge was found with finger and thumb imprints.  The series of cut marks on ochre and lines creating a mesh design are thought to be deliberate attempts at art or some type of symbolic gesture.  There was no trace of naturally occurring ochre.   

Brian Hayden (1993) agrees that ochre could be another method for solving the puzzle of human behaviour but does not go further to express its significance or what the behavioural implications may be for the grinding of ochre or notches.  No attempt seems to have been made to actually test this mineral for heat transformation of colour, or whether it was from the immediate geological context.  

Klasies River Mouth, South Africa  

The technology in Howieson’s Poort layers (c. 70,000 BP) is more sophisticated, and lithic technology is thought to be unique for its time as it is not found anywhere else until much later in the Late Stone Ages.  Mithen (1998) notes that there seems to be an increase in the quantity of red ochre after 100,000 years ago in the form of crayons at this site.  Throughout all the Howieson’s Poort Industries a few small pieces of soft, oxidized rocks were found which would have been suitable for the production of pigments (Singer & Wymer 1982:117).  Most of them showed signs of smoothing or scratching, occasionally so well developed that they could be described as crayons (ibid).  The raw material varied from the harder highly oxidised sandstone similar to materials occurring in cracks within the local quartzite found naturally at the site to a softer, greasy haematite that must have been imported (Watts 1999b: 119).  Ochre stained grindstones are reported from Klasies River, suggesting the processing of this material to make powder for paint (Watts 1999b:142).  An experiment was conducted mixing the ochre powder with some fat and then painting it onto some local beach pebbles.  It is not mentioned how long the pebbles were exposed to rain and sun but the paint remained fast (Singer & Wymer 1982:117).  A piece of red ochre has been found in the Howieson’s Poort level with drill marks and signs of grinding, strongly suggesting symbolic traditions (Knight, Power & Watts 1995:87).

Die Kelders Cave 1 (Klipgat), South Africa

At this cave site there is a long Middle Stone Age sequence preserved between the Later Stone Age layers and a cobble beach on bedrock (South African Museum Homepage: http://www.museums.org.za/sam/resource/arch/klipgat.htm). Although there is a possibility of a Howieson’s Poort industry, further excavation awaits a larger sample to confirm this, but some believe that it is missing and that the overall impression is one of minimal change over time (ibid).  Red ochre occurs as nodules, often with signs of abrasion (Grine et al. 1991:368).  Hearths were located throughout the Middle Stone Age sequence and the diet is in line with Klasies River main site and Blombos Cave (ibid).  One of the Middle Stone Age artefacts from Die Kelders is a quartzitic sandstone upper grindstone, which has ochre staining (McBrearty & Brooks 2000:528).

(Avery et al 1997 :275)

Four to Five meters of iron-stained sands are rich in bone and MSA artefacts (Grine et al. 1991:365).  

Twin Rivers, Zambia

 

Bushman Rock Shelter, Eastern Transvaal

Olieboompoort, South Africa

Volman (1984) feels that it is unlikely that the rare MSA grindstones served primarily for processing pigments, only one of the five grindstones from Bed 2 at Olieboompoort preserves traces of ochre.  Caching of glittery Specularite at this site is thought to be evidence of effective sensory stimulus to heighten “the experiential impact of ritual” (Watts 1999a:129).