La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France 

A number of lumps of ochre found with “Old Neanderthal Man”, thought to be grave goods or offerings for the afterlife (Rudgley 1999:179).  Remains seem heavily ochred, but it has not been tested to be ochre or whether it might have been an intentional or natural application.  It seems as if bones, jasper and ochre had been placed around the head of the male (Wreschner 1980:632).

Lovas, Hungary

Leroi-Gourhan found large patches of ochre on what appears to have been the floor of a hut and interpreted as possibly stains from tanning hides (Rudgley 1999:180).  Chase & Dibble (1987) believe that the “art” objects that appear at this site show some kind of symbolic ability and aesthetic sense, but biological reductionalists believe that Neanderthals were incapable of artistic behaviour, and that the personal adornments found here only represent “imitation without understanding” (Zilhao 1998: http://ww/med.abaco-mac.it/issue001/articles/doc/006.htm).  Before this was proven to be a Neanderthal site (Bahn 1998), the ornaments were assumed “typical” of behaviourally modern humans, the only difference is that these have gouged grooves for suspension, whereas “typical” AMH ornaments have drilled holes (Ape.man 2000).  This may just be a difference in style (Marshack’s comments to Byers 1994:386).    

Bone artefacts and animal tooth pendants from Chatelperronian levels at Grotte du Renne (Arcy-sur-Cure) – d’Errico et al 1998:S6

Also found at this site was worked rib bone (1. in above picture), the proximal end covered in ochre and showing two sequences of regularly spaced notches.

A Mammoth tooth covered in ochre was found at this Mousterian site which points to symbolic practices in the Middle Palaeolithic period (Marshack 1976:277, Shackley 1980:111, Gore 1996:30).  It is believed that this is a carved symbolic plaque, which had been symbolically ochred red (Marshack 1976:278).  Ochre polishing is comparable to both the Australian “churingas” and the Upper Palaeolithic plaques (Marshack 1976:277).

Mammoth molar, Mousterian site – Tata, Hungary

Marshack (1976)

Lagar Velho Rockshelter, Iberian Peninsula

Although this burial is dated to the Upper Palaeolithic (c. 25,000 BP) I feel it is necessary to include it as it is thought to be that of a young Neanderthal (with some AMH features), which indicates that Neanderthals probably lived for longer than it is presently believed.  It is assumed that the young individual was accorded special attention in death, as the skeleton is largely complete, found associated with a pierced periwinkle shell and covered with red ochre (Pettitt 1999).  The red ochre could have been used either to colour the boy’s clothing or as a burial shroud, which now covers the bones. 

La Ferrassie, France

The oldest rock art of Europe is found on the underside of a stone slab placed over the grave of a Neanderthal child.  No ochre is associated with the burials but red ochre has been found in an occupation layer (Wreschner 1980:632).

(Peyrony 1934)

Although Peyrony (1934) mentions that many pieces of red ochre and manganese oxide having been found dating to the Mousterian period, only the above (2a & b) is described as a pigment with polished parts from possible friction by scraping, found in a pocket where it was preserved without alteration.

Molodova, Ukraine

A large oval arrangement of mammoth bones, believed to have been an ancient structure, encloses an immense quantity of cultural debris, fifteen hearths and red ochreous pigment (Klein 1973:69).

Molodova I, horizon 4

(Klein 1973:70)

As you can see there is no indication on the plan above of the abovementioned pigment.  In the plan for Molodova V, horizon 2 (below), pigment is mapped within the disturbed outline of a structure, although not very clearly.

Molodova V, horizon 2 (Klein 1973:71)

Skhul and Qafzeh Caves, northern Israel

These sites span the late Middle and Upper Pleistocene with the first appearance of anatomically modern humans appearing in the region pre-dating the “revolution” characterizing the Middle/Upper Palaeolithic transition in Europe by tens of thousands of years.  It now seems apparent that Neanderthals and early “modern” humans may have coexisted in Eurasia from before 100,000 years ago to just under 35,000 years ago (Conroy 1997:439). 

Skhul is one of the most important of the Near Eastern sites from which more modern-like humans have been recovered (Conroy 1997:439).  It is interesting to note that the stone-tool traditions of these more anatomically modern humans at Skhul and Qafzeh are practically indistinguishable from those used at a later date by morphologically distinct Neanderthal-like hominids from the same region (e.g. Kebara) (Conroy 1997:441).  The only differences in Kebara and Qafzeh assemblages are that the latter include more evidence of body decorations and red ochre (ibid).  Bar-Yosef (1997) mentions a large, scraped lump of red ochre found at Qafzeh, whereas Skhul human remains lacked ochre (Wreschner 1980:632).

  Kebara, Israel

Although these remains look as if they are stained with a type of pigment Wreschner (1980:632) believes they lack ochre.  No attempt is made to test the sediments for deliberate or natural staining.

Gargett (1989) does not believe that any of the Neanderthal “burials” are intentional nor do they indicate ritual.  He adds, “Groundwater can colour sediments according to the particular broth of chemicals that it carries in solution.  Weathering of iron-oxides results in the characteristic red or brown “cave earth” often described.  Colour can act either as mask, drawing attention away from real stratisgraphic changes, or as a useful indicator of the presence of palaeosols, organics, and minerals all of which are important to the correct interpretation of occupation and abandonment” (Gargett 1989:159).  Clark & Lindley (comments to Gargett 1989:179) agree that evidence does not exist for symbolic behaviour but feel that symbolic behaviour cannot be correlated with hominid taxa.

Discussion

It is clear that the choice of criteria for excavating ochre is variable with less than half the proposed methods for testing being applied.  Also noted, is that more detailed accounts of ochre finds are being made for South African sites, possibly due to the emphasis placed on this material being of symbolic significance and some archaeologists pushing for an earlier origin for modern behaviour.  In this way the intensity of research seems to be shifting from Europe, initially thought of as the birthplace of “art”, to Africa.  However, a re-evaluation of Eurocentric suggestions of a European “origin” of “art”, language, social complexity and personal decoration can only be achieved by the inclusion of Europe and the Near East in future research and the continual re-analysis of interpretations.  Due to the extra time spent on ochre analysis in South Africa the inferences made seem almost possible, but very little has been proven beyond the possible grinding of iron oxide into a powder.  The gap between ochre in the archaeological record and ethnographic accounts of ochre use can be bridged by standardised methods of excavation and addressing positivism within the discipline.