Conclusion

 

Site	Inferred Use	Criteria tested according to Framework								Result
		1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
A	Body painting/ritual	v	v	v	v	-	-	-	-	Probable
B	Personal adornment or artefact decoration. Evidence for modern human behaviour.	v	v	v	v	-	-	-	-	Probable
C	No inference.	v	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	No inference
D	Body painting, symbolism and language.	v	v	v	v	-	v	-	-	Not proved
E	Ochre staining of hide. Body painting.	v	-	v	-	-	-	-	v	Not proved
F	Processing ochre for powder.	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
G	Ritual.	-	v	-	-	-	-	v	-	Not proved
H	Pigment use	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
I	Ritual, grave goods	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
J	Mining, pigment use	v	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Probable
K	Tanning hides, symbolic ability, personal adornment	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
L	Ritual, red as symbolic colour, polishing.	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
M	Ritual ceremony, tanning of leather	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
N	Art, ritual, tanning of leather.	v	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
O	Pigment use.	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
P	Body decoration, ritual	-	v	-	-	-	-	-	-	Not proved
Q	No inference.	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	No inference

Sites:
A Blombos, South Africa	J Lovas, Hungary
B Klasies River Mouth, South Africa	K Arcy-sur-Cure, France
C Die Kelders Cave, South Africa	L Tata, Hungary
D Twin Rivers, Zambia	M Lagar Velho Rockshelter, Iberia
E Border Cave, Swaziland	N La Ferrassie, France
F Bushman Rock, Eastern Transvaal	O Molodova, Ukraine
G Olieboompoort, South Africa	P Skhul and Qafzeh Caves, northern Israel
H Pech de l’Aze Cave, France	Q Kebara, Israel
I La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France

Whether ochre is evidence of symbolism or not, enough effort seems to have been invested in the procurement and use of this material in the recent and distant past.   It may be that the meanings of uses are completely different over space and time and have played many different roles in social life, but hypotheses and inferences need to be backed with solid evidence, which can only be achieved if good methods for recording finds in the archaeological record are applied in a standardized way.  Due to 19^th century antiquarian’s inadequate recording procedures and selective collecting of artifacts, there is much that we will never know about prehistoric societies.  We do not know what we should be looking for and what was important to the people that lived during the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age, our only link to the past is the present. Therefore, being aware of our own socio-political positioning is essential when interpreting anything archaeologically. 

 It is argued here that we are only in the beginning stages of understanding ochre use by early humans and that before interpretation of its meaning, re-analysis of earlier interpretations to deconstruct inherent biases is needed.  There is a strong possibility that Neanderthals and archaic Homo sapiens may have used ochre symbolically, but without conclusive evidence through standardized methods of excavation and recording, this cannot be proved.  Much of the symbolic inferences made for Homo sapiens in Europe have been accepted in the form of “art”, but it is possible that body painting and utilitarian uses did continue as we see it ethnographically today, but we have not been looking for it.  The strict dichotomy of utilitarian behaviour pre-language and symbolism with language, needs to be removed so that all behaviour of prehistoric humans can be analyzed.

 Various patterns have been formed with regard to the use of ochre in prehistoric times and it is suggested that these are researched further (Ian Watts, personal communication).  The following questions could be taken into consideration (ibid):

Why is most of the Mousterian pigments post circa 70,000 years ago, and the only large assemblages from the terminal Mousterian and Chatelperronian periods? Why is most Mousterian pigment manganese? Is the interpretation of the use-wear patterns on Arcy-sur-Cure materials being indicative of having been rubbed on hides correct? Are the utilized pieces at Arcy-sur-Cure as large as suggested? Criteria for rubbing versus scraping and grinding need to be explored.  Is this simply a function of hardness or does it reflect different manners of use?