The concept of an exact chronology for any civilization is fraught with danger and that of Egypt is certainly no exception.  

We are after all, dealing with a society with very little in the way of written history or literature to assist us.

The Romans recorded events in relation to the traditional founding of Rome in 753 BC and the accessions of the various consuls and emperors; the Greeks from the date of the first Olympic Games in 776 BC.

Egyptian chronology however, is a mixture of legend, fiction, astronomical data, documentary 'evidence' and an awful lot of guesswork!

In theory, history is arranged into 31 'Dynasties', each one being a collection of rulers from the same power base. This system was first employed by Manetho, High Priest and scribe at Heliopolis; who was ordered by Ptolemy II Philadelphus to write a history of the previous rulers.  

Manetho's list stretches from Menes (traditionally the first king of a unified Egypt) down to his own time.  As well as the names of each king, he gives the length and some of the events of each reign.  He was able to use the records held at the temple of Heliopolis, such as 'King Lists'. These original source documents have unfortunately, not survived, in many cases having been written on papyrus.

The Ancient Egyptians had no single, continuous era for counting years, such as our modern use of BC and AD. Instead, they dated documents and events by the year of the current pharaoh's reign.  It is difficult to establish the exact order and length of each reign, as some kings ruled simultaneously in different parts of the country.  There are ancient 'King-Lists', but these are not complete (sometimes for political or ideological reasons) and there are many gaps to fill.

Egyptian records of astronomical observations were sometimes dated by the king's regnal year. Using these rare occurrences we can attempt to calculate when this took place, giving a possible date BC in our own calendar. These are the cause of many arguments in egyptological circles however, so must be treated with the utmost caution.

Whilst modern research has thrown up many inaccuracies (in particular the individual reign lengths) the order of the various rulers together with the breaks in Dynasty are still very largely as Manetho wrote it in the 4th Century BC.

Egyptologists today divide Manetho's Dynastic system into historical eras; reflecting stages of political stability, divided by times of relative internal strife or transition called 'Intermediate Periods'.

 

The Predynastic Period (before c 3150 BC)

The earliest traces of human occupation in the Nile valley are from the Paleolithic era (circa 250,000 BC) with Stone-Age 'hunter-gatherers'.  The earliest known settled cultures (Badarian, Amratian and Gerzean) eventually group together as tribes, forming the two distinct kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The Archaic (or Early Dynastic) Period (c 3150 - 2686 BC)

This begins with the legendary King Menes (or Narmer), credited with the conquest of Lower Egypt.  We see the spread of writing and the founding of Memphis as the capital of a united nation.

The Old Kingdom (2686 - 2181 BC)

The 'Pyramid Age', best known for its architecture, sculpture and tomb reliefs.  The Step Pyramid of King Djoser (Dynasty 3) is the first large stone building in the world.  Worship of the Sun-God Ra is eminent; culminating in Dynasty 4 with the famous Pyramids at Giza, built for Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure.  As the power of provincial officials increases, that of the pharaoh wanes.  Central authority collapses with the 94-year reign of Pepi II.

The First Intermediate Period (2181 - 2040 BC)

A succession of ephemeral pharaohs with the country divided between Upper and Lower Egypt once more.

The Middle Kingdom (2134 - 1782 BC)

The Theban king Mentuhotep II reunites Upper and Lower Egypt in around 2040 BC.  The capital is moved from Thebes to Itj-Tawy, near to Memphis.  Kings of this period are again buried in pyramids (such as those at Lahun and Dahshur) and the central administration is reformed to remove power from local nobles.  There is extensive trade with Syria and Palestine.  The Middle Kingdom is regarded as being the 'Golden Age' of the Ancient Egyptian language, literature, arts and crafts.

The Second Intermediate Period (1782 - 1570 BC)

A line of weak kings (Dynasty 13) allows the establishment of Asiatic rulers (the 'Hyksos') at Avaris in the Nile Delta. These foreign rulers introduced bronzework, horse chariots and advanced bows. Theban rulers challenged the authority of the Hyksos, with Ahmose expelling them from Egypt.

The New Kingdom  (1570 - 1070 BC)

Formally known as the 'Empire Period', this was a time of great prosperity with Egypt conquering and ruling much of the Near East.  Dynasty 18 kings, (especially Tuthmosis III) conquer a huge territory stretching from the 4th Nile Cataract deep in the Sudan to the Euphrates valley in Syria.  There is much commercial and diplomatic contact with other powers (the Hittites, Babylonians, Assyrians), with Nubia administered as a colony by Egyptian Viceroys. The traditional worship of Amun-Re is thrown aside by Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) in favour of the Sun-God Aten. This heracy is charcterized by a natural style of art and the building of a new capital city on a virgin site at Amarna in Middle Egypt.  After 15 years, the old order is restored under Tutankhamun, with rule from both Memphis and Thebes. The giant figure of Ramesses II dominates Dynasty 19, constructing more buildings and statues than any other pharaoh during his 66-year reign.  His successors were faced by foreign invasions from Libya and the 'Sea Peoples'.  With the death of Ramesses III, Egypt is weakened by court intrigues, conspiracies and strikes.  The High Priests of Amun at Thebes increase their own power; eventually ruling Upper Egypt themselves, with weak rulers in the Delta.

The Third Intermediate Period (1069 - 664 BC)

Kings rule from the Delta (Tanis and Bubastis) whilst the High Priests of Amun rule in Thebes.  Later on, Nubian kings of Dynasty 25 reunify Egypt once more, only to face an Assyrian occupation of Memphis and the sacking of Thebes itself.

The Late Period (664 - 332 BC)

The Saite kings expel the Assyrians and usher in Dynasty 26, a century of renewed splendour.  Art, religion and government were inspired by the styles of the Old and Middle Kingdoms.  525 BC sees the Persian invasion with reforms of administration, the introduction of legal codes and new public works, such as temples and canal joining the Nile to the Red Sea.  Native Egyptian rule was restored briefly with the death of Darius, only to be replaced by a despotic Persian regime.

The Graeco-Roman Eras (332 BC - 395 AD)

Alexander the Great ends the Persian rule in 332 BC, establishing his new capital at the Mediterranean port of Alexandria.  With the division of his empire at Alexander's death, Egypt is acquired by his general Ptolemy.  The Ptolemies adopt Egyptian titles, worship native gods and buils many temples; including those at Philae, Dendera and Edfu.  Greek is the official court language however, and the use of hieroglyphs declines, being reserved for the most formal temple inscriptions. The Romans begin to intervene in Egyptian affairs.  The Battle of Actium sees Mark Antony (on behalf of Cleopatra VII) facing Octavian.   Egypt becomes a Roman province, the personal fiefdom of the emperor himself.  Successive Caesars are shown on Egyptian temple wall reliefs performing traditional rituals.   egyptology page 1 egyptology page 3 .