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Despite the existence of the old-established public and grammar schools
and the private and dame-schools run for profit, there were no proper
educational facilities for the working-classes in 1800. The first move came from
religious bodies, beginning with the establishment of Sunday Schools by Robert
Raikes of Gloucester in 1780. In 1808 Joseph Lancaster founded his Nonconformist
body, named after 1812 "The British And Foreign School Society", and
in 1811 came Dr Bell's Church of England National Society. These voluntary
bodies depended upon private subscriptions and endowments, and they used the
monitorial system by which the more advanced pupils taught the others. From the
beginning the National Society, with its larger resources, possessed by far the
greater number of schools.
In 1833 the government gave its first material help when it granted £20,000 to
the voluntary societies. In time the grant increased, and in 1839 a special
committee of the Privy Council was charged with its administration. Soon
followed government inspection which led to the establishment of the
pupil-teacher system, aided by State grants, and later (1861) to the system
called 'payment by results.' Under this scheme government inspectors recommended
grants to the voluntary schools based upon the examination of every scholar in
the '3 R's' (reading, writing, and arithmetic). This acted for thirty years as a
blight upon real education since it led to much unhealthy cramming.
After the Reform Act of 1867 the need was felt for educating the
working-classes. The voluntary schools had increased their activities
considerably since their beginning, but they still catered for only about
one-half of the nation's children. Forster's Elementary Education Act of 1870
filled the gap. In districts where voluntary schools were insufficient the
rate-payers were to elect school boards whose duty it was to provide elementary
education for children from five to thirteen years, with the power of compulsion
if the boards so desired. The early school attendance officers had a trying time
; healthy children were hurriedly popped into bed 'ill,' or strong boys at work
were reported dead! Voluntary schools continued with increased government
grants, while the new board schools were financed out of the rates with
government grants added. Religious controversy was settled by providing for
undenominational Bible teaching in board schools, and inserting the 'conscience
clause' for voluntary schools. In 1876 elementary education was made compulsory
throughout the country, and in 1891 it was made free. In 1899 the Board of
Education was established. Balfour's Education Act of 1902 abolished the school
boards, and placed elementary education under the counties, county boroughs, and
the larger boroughs and urban district councils. County authorities were
empowered for the first time to provide secondary education, and they could also
establish teachers' training colleges. A system of scholarships soon provided a
ladder from the elementary to the secondary school, and thence to the
university. The top rungs proved difficult to reach, and successive steps have
been taken to make them more accessible. In 1944 the Butler Education Act
introduced free secondary education for all and provided for the raising of the
school-leaving age.
In the nineteenth century the old monopoly of Oxford and Cambridge was
challenged by the establishment of London University (1828) followed in
succeeding decades by the provincial universities. Adult education was furthered
by mechanics' institutes in most of the large towns and by the establishment of
the Working Men's College in London in 1854. In 1873 Cambridge began the
university extension movement and in 1903 the Workers' Educational Association
was founded. Nor must less tangible changes be overlooked. Dr Arnold, Headmaster
of Rugby 1828-1842, led a reform of the public schools by increasing the variety
of subjects taught and above all by emphasizing the importance of
character-building in education.